Abstract

The leaf-roller moth tribe Grapholitini comprises about 1200 described species and contains numerous notorious pests of fruits and seeds. The phylogeny of the tribe has been little studied using contemporary methods, and the monophyly of several genera remains questionable. In order to provide a more robust phylogenetic framework for the group, we conducted a multiple-gene phylogenetic analysis of 104 species representing 27 genera of Grapholitini and 29 outgroup species. Divergence time, ancestral area, and host plant usage were also inferred to explore evolutionary trends in the tribe. Our analyses indicate that Larisa and Corticivora, traditionally assigned to Grapholitini, are best excluded from the tribe. After removal of these two genera, the tribe is found to be monophyletic, represented by two major lineages—a Dichrorampha clade and a Cydia clade, the latter of which can be divided into seven generic groups. The genus Grapholita was found to be polyphyletic, comprising three different clades, and we propose three genera to accommodate these groups: Grapholita (sensu stricto), Aspila (formerly a subgenus of Grapholita) and Ephippiphora (formerly considered a synonym of Grapholita). We summarize each generic group, including related genera not included in our analysis, providing morphological, pheromone and food plant characters that support particular branches within the molecular hypotheses. Biogeographical analyses indicate that Grapholitini probably originated in the Nearctic, Afrotropical and Neotropical regions in the Lutetian of the middle Eocene (ca. 44.3 Ma). Our results also indicate that most groups in Grapholitini originated from Fabaceae-feeding monophagous or oligophagous ancestors, and that host plant shifts probably promoted species diversification within the tribe.