Abstract

The two forward-looking eyes and their ultrastructural organization of an 18 mm long adult bioluminescent female millipede (Paraspirobolus lucifugus) were investigated by transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Each eye contained approximately 23 ommatidia with 50–60 μm wide and 80 um thick corneal lenses that contained calcium and silicon and proximally ended in truncated flat surfaces of around 20 μm in diameter. A maximally 28 μm thick and 25 μm long rhabdom, made up of at least 12–14 retinula cells and a 4 μm thick sleeve of screening pigment granules in a light-adapted position was present. Compared with the eyes of non-luminescent julid millipede species, those of P.lucifugus share their basic anatomy, but also exhibit features like the wide possible binocular frontal visual overlap, somewhat narrower interommatidial angles combined with relatively larger rhabdoms, which suggests that P.lucifugus has more efficient eyes and makes greater use of its photoreceptors. P.lucifugus is negatively phototactic and strictly nocturnal and its activity rhythm is apparently governed by a circadian clock.